Chapter 10 Guided Reading America as a World Power
In our electric current times, it may seem as if nosotros are constantly bombarded with heady new innovations and discoveries. All the same, many of the new ideas and technologies that are shaping our modern globe frequently can be traced back centuries in their origins. Humans have the impressive ability to go along innovating and pushing onward.
There are a number of inventions throughout history that may take contributed more than others to advance culture and technological evolution. As y'all probably guessed, today we are going to wait at some of these inventions.
Permit'due south look at some of the inventions that revolutionized history.
ane. The Wheel (3500 BC) – Permit's Get Things Rolling
One early invention that altered the history of humanity was the cycle. Although, the wheel is non really equally old as you lot may remember. The first wheel was likely developed sometime around 4000 B.C.By that time, humans were already casting metal alloys, constructing canals and sailboats, and even designing complex musical instruments such as harps.
In fact, the central innovation was not the cycle itself, which was likely invented the first time someone saw a rock rolling forth, but the combination of the wheel and a stock-still axle, which allows the wheel to be connected to a stable platform. Without the fixed axel, the wheel has very express utility.
Evidence suggests that the first device to utilize the wheel and beam combination was a true potter's wheel,which is freely-spinning and has a bicycle and axle machinery. These were developed inMesopotamia (modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey, and Syrian arab republic) sometime around 4000 BCE. The oldest surviving example, which was institute in Ur, dates to effectually 3100 BCE, and there is evidence of wheeled vehicles by the late fourth millennium BCE.
2. The Compass (c. 200 BC)
The compass has helped humans to explore and navigate around the earth. In today'southward world of satellites and GPS, information technology may seem irrelevant, simply it was an important invention in its twenty-four hour period.
Still, the compass may have originally been created for spiritual purposes and simply later adapted for navigational purposes. The earliest compasses were most likely invented past the Chinese, around 200 BC. Some were fabricated of lodestone, which is a naturally-occurring form of the mineral magnetite.
There is besides bear witness that other civilizations may have used lodestone for navigation or for spiritual purposes. At some indicate, maybe effectually 1050 CE, people began suspending the lodestones to allow them to motility freely, and using them for navigation. A description of a magnetized needle and its use amongst sailors occurs in a European book written in 1190, so by that time, it is probable that the use of a needle every bit a compass was commonplace.
3. Waterwheel
Awater bikeis amachinethat converts the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of ability, such as awatermill. A water wheel consists of a cycle and a number ofbladesorbucketsarranged on the outside rim forming the driving motorcar.
The water wheel was invented independently in a number of places. Some of the earliest were developed by the aboriginal Greeks, who used it for both irrigation and milling, beginning onetime in the period between the 3rd and 1st century BC.
By at least the 1st century Advert, the Eastern Han Dynasty was using horizontal water wheels for milling and to ability the piston-bellows used to forge iron ore into cast iron.
There are as well ancient Indian texts dating to the 4th century BC that refer to devices that may have been some of the outset h2o wheels, but this is yet to be confirmed.
4. Calendar
The notion of a calendar, in the sense of keeping track of how many days have passed, is likely quite old — at least as old equally writing itself. The starting time "calendars" were based on the phases of the Moon, equally this would have been easy to track.
Nevertheless, the lunisolar calendar, in which months are based on the lunar wheel, but years are solar — bringing the seasons into line and so that, for example, the grain was harvested in the same lunar calendar month each year — was used in the early civilizations in the Middle Due east and inHellenic republic. The formula may accept been invented in Mesopotamia in the 3rdmillennium BCE .
Many civilizations continued to utilise a lunar calendar, which had fewer days than the solar year. In society to keep the months from moving around too much, an extra month would often be added every other twelvemonth. The ancient Romans used a system like to this, simply by around 46 BC, the system had broken down, and then that civic events and religious holidays were occurring during the wrong season. Julius Caesar thus introduced a new system, which set the length of the months and the year to marshal with the solar year. This was the Julian agenda.
This worked well, just was still off by enough so that information technology gained a day every 128 years. To set the error, the Gregorian calendar, which most of the world uses today was introduced by Pope Gregory 13 in 1582.
5. Ancient Concrete
We alive in a globe that is congenital using materials held together with physical. Concrete is a composite material made from a mixture of broken stone or gravel, sand, Portland cement, and water, which can be spread or poured into molds and forms a mass resembling stone on hardening.
I of the key ingredients of concrete is cement, and the origins of cement may stretch back to 3000 BC. At this time, the Egyptians were using early forms of concrete as a mortar in their edifice.
Around 1300 BC, builders in the Middle East were coating the exterior of their clay fortresses with a thin, moist layer of burned limestone. This would chemically react with gasses in the air to course a difficult, protective surface. By 700 BC, the significance of hydraulic lime was known, which led to the evolution of mortar kilns for the construction of rubble-wall houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof cisterns.
The ancient Greeks and Romans used a course of concrete which included Pozzolana, which uses an aluminum and silica mixture that reacts with calcium hydroxide at room temperature and in the presence of water to course a substance that acts as cement. It was very strong — 1 reason why so many Greek and Roman ruins survive today.
In 1824, Portland cement was invented by Joseph Aspdin of England. George Bartholomew had laid downwardly the first concrete street in the US during 1891, which yet exists.
Past the end of the xixth century, the use of steel-reinforced concrete was developed. In 1902, using steel-reinforced physical, Auguste Perret designed and built an flat building in Paris. This edifice garnered a lot of admiration and popularity for concrete, and eventually influenced the development of reinforced concrete.
In 1921, Eugène Freyssinet pioneered the use of reinforced concrete construction by building two colossal parabolic-arched balloon hangars at Orly Airport in Paris.
6. Clock (725 Advertizement) – the Kickoff Mechanical Clock
Imagine modern civilisation without having a sense of time? Depending on your point of view, this is either wonderful or horrible. Humans have used devices to measure fourth dimension for thousands of years - the currentsystemof fourth dimension measurement, based on lx seconds to the minute and sixty minutes to the hour, was created by the Sumerians around 2000 BC.
The primeval timepieces used the movement of the sun (sundials) or water (waterclocks). Other early "clocks" include the candle clock, the time stick, and the hourglass.
The earliest known mechanical clock used a water-powered escapement machinery to transfer rotational free energy into intermittent move, and was adult in Hellenic republic around the third centuryBC. In the 10th century Advertizement, Chinese engineersinvented clocks which usedmercury-powered escapement mechanisms, and Arabic engineersinvented water clocks that were driven bygearsandweightsin the 11th century.
The first mechanical clocks that used gear trains to advance the mechanism, called a verge escapement, were invented in Europe at around the start of the 14th century. These were the standard until the pendulum clock was invented in 1656.
Pendulum clocks were the most authentic timepiecesuntil the 1930s, when quartz clocks were invented, followed by diminutive clocks after World State of war 2.
7. The Printing Press
The printing printing is a prominent part of the foundation on which modern civilization was built upon.
German goldsmithJohannes Gutenberg is credited with inventing the printing press around 1436, although he was not the first to automate the printing process.Woodblock printing in China dates back to the 9th century, and Korean bookmakers were printing with moveable metal type around 100 years before Gutenberg.
Johannes Gutenberg's machine, still, improved on the already existing presses and introduced them to the West. By 1500, Gutenberg presses were operating throughout Western Europe, with a production of 20 million materials, from individual pages, to pamphlets, and books.
The printing press not only allowed the mass product of newspapers and pamphlets, it also lowered the cost of printed materials, making books and newspapers accessible to many, and fostering literacy.
The impact of the printing press in history was described by Mark Twain equally, "What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to Gutenberg."
8. The Steam Engine – The Invention that Started a Revolution
A Spanish mining administrator named Jerónimo de Ayanz is idea to accept been the first person to develop a steam engine. Hie patented a device that used steam power to propel water from mines.
However, it is Englishman Thomas Savery, an engineer and inventor, who is ordinarily credited with developing the start practical steam engine, in 1698. His device used steam pressure to draw h2o from flooded mines. In developing his engine, Savery had used principles set forth by Denis Papin, a French-born British physicist who invented the force per unit area cooker.
In 1711,another Englishman, Thomas Newcomen, improved on the steam engine, andin 1781, James Watt, a Scottish instrument maker employed by Glasgow University, added a dissever condenser to Newcomen'southward engine, which allowed the steam cylinder to be maintained at a constant temperature — dramatically improving its functionality. He later adult a double rotating steam engine that, past the 1800s, would be powering trains,mills, factories, and numerous other manufacturing operations — kickstarting the Industrial Revolution.
9. Vaccines – One of the Most Of import Inventions for Medicine
The history of vaccination actually dates back farther than you might think. The practice of variolation — smearing a small cut in the skin with cowpox to give amnesty to smallpox was expert in 17th century China.
In the West, Edward Jenner is considered the founder of vaccinology, after noticing that "milkmaids" often suffered from cowpox only rarely from smallpox and hypothesized that the less dangerous cowpox virus could confer some immunity to smallpox. In 1796, he inoculated a xiii year-old-boy with cowpox, then exposed him to smallpox — demonstrating an early form of vaccination.
In 1798, the first smallpox vaccine was developed.
Louis Pasteur'south experiments later on led to the evolution of live attenuated cholera vaccine and inactivated anthrax vaccine in humans (1897 and 1904, respectively).
In 1923, Alexander Glenny perfected a method to inactivate tetanus toxin using formaldehyde, creating a tetanus vaccine. The same method was used to develop a vaccine confronting diphtheria in 1926.
Viral tissue culture methods developed from 1950-1985, and led to the advent of the Salk (inactivated) polio vaccine and the Sabin (live adulterate oral) polio vaccine.
ten. The Steam-Powered Train - Chugging Along with the Industrial Revolution
The first total-calibration working railwaysteam locomotive was congenital in the United Kingdom in 1804 pastRichard Trevithick, a British engineer . It used loftier-force per unit area steam to drive the engine. On 21 February 1804, the world's first steam-powered railway journey took place when Trevithick'due south unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along a tramway in Wales.
The commencement commercially successfulsteam locomotive, the Salamanca, wasbuilt in 1812–13 by John Blenkinsop.In 1814, George Stephenson built a steam engine, the Locomotion No. one, based on Blenkinsop'due south design.
In 1821, Stephenson was appointed as an engineer for the construction of the Stockton and Darlington Railway in the northeast of England, which was opened as the kickoff public steam-powered railway in 1825. His Locomotion became the first steam locomotive to haul passengers on a public railway. In 1829, he congenital his famous steam engine,Rocket, and the age of railways had begun.
11. Electrical Battery – Volta'southward Remarkable Feat
In the 1800s, people did non have continuous electric lines that carried a constant supply of power. And then, the production of electricity was not at all an easy chore.
The bombardment may actually date dorsum near 2,000 years, to the Parthian empire. Archaeologists have unearthed an ancient battery consisting of a clay jar filled with a vinegar solution, into which an iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder was inserted. These batteries might have been used to electroplate silvery.
Alessandro Volta is generally credited with discovering the first applied bombardment. He invented his battery in 1799, information technology consisted of discs of two unlike metals, such equally copper and zinc, separated by cardboard soaked in alkali.
In 1802, William Cruickshankinvented the Troughbattery, an improvement on Volta's voltaic pile.Batteries had a breakthrough in 1859, with the invention of the get-go rechargeable battery based on lead-acid past the French physician Gaston Planté. The Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) battery was introduced in 1899 by Waldemar Jungner.
12. Computer (1822) – The First Mechanical Calculator by Babbage
Computers are 1 of humanity'southward greatest inventions. Initially built for doing complex mathematical calculations, the bulky computers of the past accept evolved into machines that sit on about every desktop and are carried in our pockets.
Mechanical engineer Charles Babbage laid the foundation for this remarkable and virtually reliable invention, along with Ada Lovelace, who created the first programs. In the early on nineteenth century, the "father of the calculator" conceptualized and developed an early on mechanical computer. Although there's no single inventor of the modernistic computer, the principle was proposed byAlan Turingin his seminal 1936 paper.
13. Refrigerator – Beating the Estrus
According to the report of 2009 past the U.S Department of free energy, 99% of Us homes have at least one refrigerator. This statistic itself is representative of the popularity of the refrigerator in the modern earth. The bully invention helps go on perishable food products fresh much longer.
The starting time vapor-pinch refrigerator was patented in 1835 past Jacob Perkins, based on a theory put frontward before by Oliver Evans. British engineerJames Harrison congenital the offset mechanical refrigeration organisation, to create water ice, in around 1851. He founded the Victorian Water ice Works and is often chosen "the father of refrigeration". In 1873, he demonstrated that meat kept frozen for months remained perfectly edible.
Notwithstanding, the first refrigerator to exist manufactured for widespread utilise was the General Electrical "Monitor-Top" fridge of 1927. While it helped to rev upwardly industrial processes initially, information technology became an industry itself later on.
xiv. Telegraph (1830-1840) – The Advice Device that Introduced the Morse Code
In the early 19th century, the development of the battery allowed current to be used in a controlled surroundings. Then, in 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) demonstrated the connexion betwixt electricity and magnetism. After this, scientists and inventors began experimenting with both batteries and electromagnetism to develop some kind of advice organisation.
In the 1830s, the British team of Sir William Cooke and Sir Charles Wheatstone adult a telegraph organization using magnetic needles that could be pointed around a panel of letters and numbers using an electric current. Effectually the aforementioned time, Samuel Morse worked to develop an electric telegraph of his own, eventually producing a single-excursion telegraph that worked by pushing the operator central downwards to complete the electric circuit of the bombardment. This sent the electric signal to a receiver at the other end.
At the same fourth dimension, Morse and Alfred Valetoo created what is now chosen Morse code to transmit messages across telegraph wires.
15. Steel – From Pins to the Brooklyn Span
The weight to strength ratio has made steel a preferred choice of builders over other materials. For example, while Bronze was the first metal forged for use by humans, it is relatively weak.Around 1,800 BC, people along the Black Ocean began using iron ore to create sturdy wrought iron weapons. The even-stronger cast iron was first made in China, commencement around 500 BC.
Effectually 400 BC, Indian metalworkers invented a smelting method that used a clay dish to hold ingots of wrought iron and pieces of charcoal. When these were inserted into a furnace, the wrought iron melted and absorbed the carbon in the charcoal. When the crucibles cooled, they contained ingots of pure steel — which was much stronger and less brittle than iron.
In 1856, British engineer Henry Bessemer adult a process that blasted air through molten pig fe to create carbon-free, pure atomic number 26.
The Bessemer Process paved the way for the mass production of steel, making it one of the biggest industries on the planet. Today steel is used in the creation of everything from bridges to skyscrapers.
16. Electric Bulb (1880) – Lighting Upward the World
Electric lights were pioneered in the early 19th century past Humphry Davy, who experimented withelectricity and invented anelectric battery. When he connected wires between his bombardment and a piece of carbon, the carbon glowed, producinglow-cal. His invention was known as the electric arc lamp.
Over the next seven decades, other inventors also created "lightbulbs." However, the filaments used tended to break after a few days of use, making them impractical.
In 1850 an English physicist named Joseph Wilson Swan created a "light bulb" by enclosing carbonized newspaper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. Just without a skilful vacuum, his seedling had too short a lifetime for commercial use. Notwithstanding, in the 1870s, better vacuum pumps became bachelor and Swan was able to develop a longer-lasting lightbulb.
Thomas A. Edison improved on Swan's design by using metallic filaments and in 1878 and 1879 he filed patents for electric lights using different materials for the filament. He eventually discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could final over 1200 hours.This discovery fabricated commercially manufactured light bulbs commercially feasible.
17. The Airplane (1903) – Making the Flight Dream Come True
Leonardo da Vinci was one of the visionaries who believed that powered flight was possible. He fabricated several designs for flying machines, although there is no show that any were actually synthetic.
Many other flying machines were dreamed upwardly since da Vinci's time, and powered flight was achieved thanks to the work of endless inventors over the centuries. It was the Wright Brothers who became the start people to reach controlled, powered flight. Start with their work on gliders, the duo'south success laid the foundation for modern aeronautical engineering past demonstrating what was possible.
On December 17, 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright accomplished the first powered, sustained, and controlled flight.
At present humans can cover thousands of miles in a thing of hours thanks to the achievement of Wilbur and Orville Wright.
xviii. Transistors (1947) – The Clandestine of Modern Day Calculating
The electronics age owes its inception to transistors used to dilate electrical signals. These replaced the beefy vacuum tubes that came before.
In 1926, Julius Lilienfeld patented a field-effect transistor, but the working device was not feasible. In 1947 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley adult the offset practical transistor device at Bell Laboratories. Their invention won the trio the 1956 Nobel Prize in physics.
Transistors take since become a fundamental piece of the circuitry in countless electronic devices including televisions, cellphones, and computers, making a remarkable affect on technology.
nineteen. ARPANET (1969) – The Early Internet
The Net has no single "inventor." Instead, it has evolved over time. It started in the United States around the 1950s, along with the development of computers.
The beginning workable prototype of theCyberspace came in the late 1960s, with the creation of ARPANET, or the Advanced Enquiry Projects Agency Network. By the 1970s, the Transmission Command Protocol (TCP/IP) was developed by Vinton Cerf, which enabled computers to communicate with each other. ARPANET adopted the TCP/IP protocols on January ane, 1983, and from there, researchers began to assemble the "network of networks" that became the modernInternet.
TheInternetis a networking infrastructure, whereas the Earth Wide Web is a way to access information using the Internet. The begetter of the World wide web is considered to be British Computer Scientist,Tim Berners-Lee, who created the Web to allow data-sharing between scientists in universities and institutes around the earth.
In 1989 and 1990, Berners-Lee worked with Belgian systems engineer Robert Cailliau to formalize a proposal for the web architecture, including describing a "WorldWideWeb" in which "hypertext documents" could be viewed past "browsers."
A Long Manner Indeed!
Looking back at these basis-breaking inventions, one thing is articulate — our desire to improve and innovate. Nosotros encounter a society that invented the wheel to tread basis quickly, who mastered the skies and waves. Information technology is truly remarkable and something that we will go on to do for ages to come! What major inventions volition be created in the coming decade?
Source: https://interestingengineering.com/19-great-inventions-that-revolutionized-history
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